Cystatin C biosensors for diagnosis of kidney failure – A literature review

Erika Ketlem Gomes Trindade, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering. Federal University of Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235, CEP 50610-970 - Recife, Brazil.

Rosa Fireman Dutra, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering. Federal University of Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235, CEP 50610-970 - Recife, Brazil.

Abstract
Kidney diseases are a major global health threat and the development of new and improved detection methods for early diagnostic is imperative. Biosensors are devices capable of delivering rapid and specific results, allied to the possibility of miniaturization and point-of-care diagnostics. Different transducing methods are presented and different nanomaterials are involved to produce optical and electrochemical approaches with low detection limits and fast responses. This paper reviews the current state-of-the-art in biosensor researches regarding efficient, specific and rapid detection of Cystatin C (CysC), an early kidney failure biomarker. A comprehensive literature search was performed, which included primary research studies on biosensors for Cystatin C detection. Although there have been great developments in the area, the biggest problem is the miniaturization and the ability to accomplish readings directly in blood or serum. This is a concern approached by some researchers in the biosensor field. Cystatin C is an effective biomarker for early diagnostic of kidney failure. The current available literature shows a trend towards the development of methods capable of simple detection with few steps to obtain readings. This has the potential to enhance outcomes for patients in dialysis and intensive care units.

Keywords
Kidney diseases; Diagnostics; Biosensors; Nanomaterials; Cystatin C.

Cite this paper
Erika Ketlem Gomes Trindade, Rosa Fireman Dutra, Cystatin C biosensors for diagnosis of kidney failure – A literature review , SCIREA Journal of Clinical Medicine. Volume 6, Issue 6, December 2021 | PP. 726-741. 10.54647/cm32718

References

[ 1 ]	Coca SG, Singanamala S, Parikh CR. Chronic kidney disease after acute kidney injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Kidney International. 2012;81(5):442–8.
[ 2 ]	Gharaibeh KA, Hamadah AM, El-Zoghby ZM, Lieske JC, Larson TS, Leung N. Cystatin C Predicts Renal Recovery Earlier Than Creatinine Among Patients With Acute Kidney Injury. Kidney International Reports. 2018;3(2):337–42.
[ 3 ]	Hoste EAJ, Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R, Cely CM, Colman R, Cruz DN, et al. Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study. Intensive Care Medicine. 2015 Aug;41(8):1411–23.
[ 4 ]	Chawla LS, Bellomo R, Bihorac A, Goldstein SL, Siew ED, Bagshaw SM, et al. Acute kidney disease and renal recovery: Consensus report of the Acute Disease Quality Initiative (ADQI) 16 Workgroup. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2017;13(4):241–57.
[ 5 ]	Chawla LS, Eggers PW, Star RA, Kimmel PL. Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease as Interconnected Syndromes. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;371(1):58–66.
[ 6 ]	Chawla LS, Bellomo R, Bihorac A, Goldstein SL, Siew ED, Bagshaw SM, et al. Acute kidney disease and renal recovery: Consensus report of the Acute Disease Quality Initiative (ADQI) 16 Workgroup. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2017;13(4):241–57.
[ 7 ]	Webster AC, Nagler E V, Morton RL, Masson P. Chronic Kidney Disease. The Lancet. 2017 Mar;389(10075):1238–52.
[ 8 ]	Hill NR, Fatoba ST, Oke JL, Hirst JA, Callaghan AO, Lasserson DS, et al. Global Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease – A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE. 2016;1–18.
[ 9 ]	Gifford FJ, Gifford RM, Eddleston M, Dhaun N. Endemic Nephropathy Around the World. Kidney International Reports. 2017;2(2):282–92.
[ 10 ]	Grams ME, Juraschek SP, Selvin E, Foster MC, Inker LA, Eckfeldt JH, et al. Trends in the prevalence of reduced GFR in the United States: A comparison of creatinine- and cystatin c-based estimates. American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2013;62(2):253–60.
[ 11 ]	de Moura L, Prestes IV, Duncan BB, Thome FS, Schmidt MI. Dialysis for end stage renal disease financed through the Brazilian National Health System, 2000 to 2012. BMC nephrology. 2014;15:111.
[ 12 ]	de Moura L, Prestes IV, Duncan BB, Thome FS, Schmidt MI. Dialysis for end stage renal disease financed through the Brazilian National Health System, 2000 to 2012. BMC nephrology. 2014;15:111.
[ 13 ]	Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu C. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. The New England journal of medicine. 2015;351(13):1296–305.
[ 14 ]	Grubb A, Horio M, Hansson LO, Björk J, Nyman U, Flodin M, et al. Generation of a new cystatin C-based estimating equation for glomerular filtration rate by use of 7 assays standardized to the international calibrator. Clinical Chemistry. 2014;60(7):974–86.
[ 15 ]	Jha V, Garcia-Garcia G, Iseki K, Li Z, Naicker S, Plattner B, et al. Chronic kidney disease: Global dimension and perspectives. The Lancet. 2013;382(9888):260–72.
[ 16 ]	Khorgami Z, Abdollahi A, Soleimani S, Ahamadi F, Mahdavi-Mazdeh M. Relationship between serum cystatin C and creatinine or dialysis adequacy in patients on chronic maintenance hemodialysis. Nephro-urology monthly. 2013;5(2):733–5.
[ 17 ]	Grubb A, Horio M, Hansson LO, Björk J, Nyman U, Flodin M, et al. Generation of a new cystatin C-based estimating equation for glomerular filtration rate by use of 7 assays standardized to the international calibrator. Clinical Chemistry. 2014;60(7):974–86.
[ 18 ]	Khorgami Z, Abdollahi A, Soleimani S, Ahamadi F, Mahdavi-Mazdeh M. Relationship between serum cystatin C and creatinine or dialysis adequacy in patients on chronic maintenance hemodialysis. Nephro-urology monthly. 2013;5(2):733–5.
[ 19 ]	Grams ME, Juraschek SP, Selvin E, Foster MC, Inker LA, Eckfeldt JH, et al. Trends in the prevalence of reduced GFR in the United States: A comparison of creatinine- and cystatin c-based estimates. American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2013;62(2):253–60.
[ 20 ]	Fonseca I, Reguengo H, Oliveira JC, Martins LS, Malheiro J, Almeida M, et al. A triple-biomarker approach for the detection of delayed graft function after kidney transplantation using serum creatinine, cystatin C, and malondialdehyde. Clinical Biochemistry. 2015;48(16–17):1033–8.
[ 21 ]	Fox JA, Dudley AG, Bates C, Cannon Jr. GM. Cystatin C as a marker of early renal insufficiency in children with congenital neuropathic bladder. The Journal of urology. 2014;191(5 Suppl):1602–7.
[ 22 ]	Mi L, Wang P, Yan J, Qian J, Lu J, Yu J, et al. A novel photoelectrochemical immunosensor by integration of nanobody and TiO2 nanotubes for sensitive detection of serum cystatin C. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2016;902:107–14.
[ 23 ]	Ravn B, Prowle JR, Mårtensson J, Martling C-R, Bell M. Superiority of Serum Cystatin C Over Creatinine in Prediction of Long-Term Prognosis at Discharge From ICU. Critical Care Medicine. 2017;1(7):1.
[ 24 ]	Shlipak MG, Matsushita K, Ärnlöv J, Inker LA, Katz R, Polkinghorne KR, et al. Cystatin C versus creatinine in determining risk based on kidney function. The New England journal of medicine. 2013;369(10):932–43.
[ 25 ]	Shlipak MG, Mattes MD, Peralta CA. Update on cystatin C: Incorporation into clinical practice. American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2013;62(3):595–603.
[ 26 ]	Lau L, Al-Ismaili Z, Harel-Sterling M, Pizzi M, Caldwell JS, Piccioni M, et al. Serum cystatin C for acute kidney injury evaluation in children treated with aminoglycosides. Pediatric Nephrology. 2017;1–9.
[ 27 ]	Tao J, Zhao P, Zeng Q. The determination of cystatin C in serum based on label-free and near-infrared light emitted PbS@BSA QDs. Journal of Materials Chemistry B. 2016;4(24):4258–62.
[ 28 ]	Hoek FJ, Korevaar JC, Dekker FW, Boeschoten EW, Krediet RT. Estimation of residual glomerular filtration rate in dialysis patients from the plasma cystatin C level. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation. 2007;22(6):1633–8.
[ 29 ]	Gorodkiewicz E, Luszczyn J. Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging (SPRI) Sensor for Cystatin Determination Based on Immobilized Papain. Protein and Peptide Letters. 2011;18(1):23–9.
[ 30 ]	Desai D, Kumar A, Bose D, Datta M. Ultrasensitive sensor for detection of early stage chronic kidney disease in human. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2018;105(January):90–4.
[ 31 ]	Lin H, Li L, Lei C, Xu X, Nie Z, Guo M, et al. Immune-independent and label-free fluorescent assay for Cystatin C detection based on protein-stabilized Au nanoclusters. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2013 Mar 15;41(1):256–61.
[ 32 ]	Lopes P, Costa-rama E, Beirão I, Nouws HPA, Santos- A, Delerue-matos C. Disposable electrochemical immunosensor for analysis of cystatin C, a CKD biomarker. Talanta. 2019;
[ 33 ]	Jiang R, Xu C, Zhou X, Wang T, Yao G. Detection of Cystatin C biomarker for clinical measurement of renal disease by developed ELISA diagnostic kits. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2014;12(1):1–8.
[ 34 ]	Delanaye P, Cavalier E, Morel J, Mehdi M, Maillard N, Claisse G, et al. Detection of decreased glomerular filtration rate in intensive care units: serum cystatin C versus serum creatinine. BMC Nephrology. 2014;15(1):9.
[ 35 ]	Chocarro-Ruiz B, Fernández-Gavela A, Herranz S, Lechuga LM. Nanophotonic label-free biosensors for environmental monitoring. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2017;45:175–83.
[ 36 ]	Rodriguez BAG, Trindade EKG, Cabral DGA, Soares ECL, Menezes CEL, Ferreira DCM, et al. Nanomaterials for Advancing the Health Immunosensor. In: Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications. 2015. p. 347–74.
[ 37 ]	Ding L, Bond AM, Zhai J, Zhang J. Utilization of nanoparticle labels for signal amplification in ultrasensitive electrochemical affinity biosensors: a review. Anal Chim Acta. 2013;797:1–12.
[ 38 ]	Sharma S, Byrne H, O’Kennedy RJ. Antibodies and antibody-derived analytical biosensors. Essays In Biochemistry. 2016;60(1):9–18.
[ 39 ]	Wang J. Electrochemical biosensors: Towards point-of-care cancer diagnostics. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2006;21(10):1887–92.
[ 40 ]	Song Y, Luo Y, Zhu C, Li H, Du D, Lin Y. Recent advances in electrochemical biosensors based on graphene two-dimensional nanomaterials. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2016;76:195–212.
[ 41 ]	Huang J, Huang W, Wang T. Catalytic and inhibitory kinetic behavior of horseradish peroxidase on the electrode surface. Sensors (Switzerland). 2012;12(11):14556–69.
[ 42 ]	Turner APF. Biosensors: sense and sensibility. Chemical Society reviews. 2013;42(8):3184–96.
[ 43 ]	Stamplecoskie K, Chen Y-S, Kamat P V. Thiolated gold nanoclusters: A new class of photosensitizers [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jun 23]. p. 71–2. Available from: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/materials-science/thiolated-gold-nanoclusters.html
[ 44 ]	Algar WR, Tavares AJ, Krull UJ. Beyond labels: A review of the application of quantum dots as integrated components of assays, bioprobes, and biosensors utilizing optical transduction. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2010;673(1):1–25.
[ 45 ]	Puttaswamy SV, Lubarsky G v., Kelsey C, Zhang X, Finlay D, McLaughlin JA, et al. Nanophotonic-Carbohydrate Lab-on-a-Microneedle for Rapid Detection of Human Cystatin C in Finger-Prick Blood. ACS Nano. 2020;14(9):11939–49.
[ 46 ]	Lesnak M, Jursa D, Miskay M, Riedlova H, Barcova K, Adamek M. The determination of cystatin C in biological samples via the surface plasmon resonance method. BioTechniques. 2021;70(5):1–8.
[ 47 ]	Trindade EKG, Silva BVM, Dutra RF. A probeless and label-free electrochemical immunosensor for cystatin C detection based on ferrocene functionalized-graphene platform. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2019 Aug 1;138:111311.
[ 48 ]	Yang ZH, Zhuo Y, Yuan R, Chai YQ. Highly Effective Protein Converting Strategy for Ultrasensitive Electrochemical Assay of Cystatin C. Analytical Chemistry. 2016;88(10):5189–96.
[ 49 ]	Zhao M, Bai L, Cheng W, Duan X, Wu H, Ding S. Monolayer rubrene functionalized graphene-based eletrochemiluminscence biosensor for serum cystatin C detection with immunorecognition- induced 3D DNA machine. Biosensors and Bioelectronic. 2018;
[ 50 ]	Lopes P, Costa-rama E, Beirão I, Nouws HPA, Santos- A, Delerue-matos C. Disposable electrochemical immunosensor for analysis of cystatin C, a CKD biomarker. Talanta. 2019;
[ 51 ]	Wang B, Yu X, Yin G, Wang J, Jin Y, Wang T. Developing a novel and simple biosensor for Cystatin C as a fascinating marker of glomerular filtration rate with DNase I-aided recycling amplification strategy. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis [Internet]. 2021;203:114230. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114230
[ 52 ]	Hassanain WA, Izake EL, Ayoko GA. Spectroelectrochemical Nanosensor for the Determination of Cystatin C in Human Blood. Analytical Chemistry. 2018;
[ 53 ]	Gomes RS, Gomez-Rodríguez BA, Fernandes R, Sales MGF, Moreira FTC, Dutra RF. Plastic antibody of polypyrrole/multiwall carbon nanotubes on screen-printed electrodes for cystatin C detection. Biosensors. 2021;11(6).
[ 54 ]	Ferreira PAB, Araujo MCM, Prado CM, de Lima RA, Rodríguez BAG, Dutra RF. An ultrasensitive Cystatin C renal failure immunosensor based on a PPy/CNT electrochemical capacitor grafted on interdigitated electrode. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces [Internet]. 2020;189(October 2019):110834. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.110834